Zhou Enlai in January 1959 to answer quickly. In short, his argument is: (1) Sino-Indian boundary has never been officially demarcated. That is, the Chinese Central Government and the Government of India has never been entered into between the relevant Sino-Indian border, any treaties and agreements. (2) territory, and It is with Myanmar in the negotiations as being. Here. already seen the outline of a possible solution: China will allow the legalization of the McMahon Line in the direction. to serve as the border in northeast India, India abandon or revise its outright demands of Aksai Chin. But the road to this solution can only be through negotiation. Zhou said. Beijing is now prepared to negotiate.
noted recently took place in the border patrol some of the friction events. Chou En-lai in the letter suggested that It seems such measures are essential to negotiate minimum conditions. or else. the public on the disputed areas of armed conflict in response to damage or poison the negotiations will be. However. Nehru that such an agreement is reached in China through the a term of the position of the Government of India Jawaharlal Nehru to reflect on and accept the Chinese proposal.)
, however, Zhou Enlai, Nehru suggested straightforward refusal will bring unwelcome consequences. it amounts expressly declared: India insisted that its forces to advance to all the territories it claims; but rather, this is the center of the policy intent of Nehru. If the public say, would expose the same peace-loving India's international image and prestige of a great contradiction challenging. and aroused the Chinese to take immediate defensive measures. so. In his reply of March between Nehru prevaricate, the use of Indian diplomacy since the argument has increasingly become characteristic of sophistry. He wrote:
I agree that both sides should respect those disputes in the recent situation that existed before the occurrence of the two sides should not be trying to take unilateral action to exercise the right to think they belong to it. Furthermore, if there is any land acquired for the most recent case, the situation should be corrected.
so agree with Zhou Enlai, Nehru first glance the proposal, in fact, reject it. His second sentence is contradictory with the first sentence, because it seems to want to restore in India status quo is acceptable, not Zhou Enlai proposed the status quo. This indicates that in the near future India would stubbornly insist that China must first withdraw from the Aksai Chin to the . Just as Nehru in his (September 26, 1959), the letter said: threats and intimidation. negotiations are not productive. . before it can be negotiated. Nehru blocked the settlement of disputes through peaceful negotiations, all the possibilities. Since that time nearly 40 years, no term follow-up of the Indian government to seek mm mm or overcome this obstacle.
truth has been India's refusal to agree to maintain border status quo, but this does not in practice refuse to negotiate the dispute is not publicly made it clear that, because India is consistently advocated in all international disputes without any preconditions for peace talks The well-known. ⑦ So, once again resorted to sophistry. India's refusal to negotiate attitude. actually confusing for the use of semantics into a diplomatic note to the words covered up, giving the impression that the Chinese refused to negotiate. ⑧ Nehru himself took part in the most important diplomatic notes, memos and letters in the drafting. ⑨
space conflicts in the Indian population of Kazan has caused public outrage (quite satisfied with Mu gram) 10, which led to Zhou Enlai held immediately urged Summit. Nehru delayed for several months, then agreed to (1960) Zhou Enlai received in New Delhi in April, while the domestic is not clear that this meeting to . Myanmar signed an agreement with India to solve than to be more ancient and far more complex border issues, including the China-Burma border and to that part of the McMahon Line legalization .11
at the Summit. China to resolve the border issue clear recommendations to mention the first time out: draw a section of a mutually acceptable border, China is prepared to make towards the McMahon Line in the British official of .1899 of a proposal to China will be fully road and stay in the territory of China's territory, India has moved forward significantly the trend, the Indian negotiators could be a good goal. But Nehru's stand is very rigid: no compromise, and refrain from maintaining the status quo agreements, no negotiations. only China's diplomatic concessions and promised from the Aksai Chin India will meet the requirements of the withdrawal.
b American scholar Steven Hoffman on India's border policy with the earlier mentioned the elite nature of the link between nationalism, Jawaharlal Nehru and his advisers revealed Zhou Enlai and China at the reception were a delegation of mind. They believe that China hopes mm
(through a negotiated settlement of border issues) is the attempt to discredit the authenticity of the nation's history in India. In India, it seems, is not a truly national be required to form the boundary of its history of negotiations. such a request and the request can only come from one (like India, as the former British rulers) will be artificially created in India as a nation of neighbors.
so. According to Hoffman's analysis. The more the Chinese side insisted that the negotiations, the Indians feel that this is the more of them as an attack on national identity increasingly angry, so they refused to be more resolute. Hoffman's explanation comes from the Nehru, who was closest advisers as the years of talk, it sounds weird, but it is true.
after the failure of the summit meeting still continued diplomatic exchanges, the two officials on their historical and geographical arguments put forward in detail. But now come to an end the stalemate and 1962 summer .1961 India's . Nehru (the other occasions. that the annexation of Goa India) said his prospects. this confidence seems to reflect the fact that his closest advisers, in particular, Mullick, until finally have time to assure him: India, China will never use force. The increasingly strong warnings Beijing chide and the bluff is. It seems also the performance of a contemporary Indian observers suggest his country's the intensification of the war and will continue to shake the world. he will be seen as India and China have the same strength and determination of the premise of the two big countries, was hit in China, India, the immediate impact of the collapse of all proved to be false.
point of view from the truth, if India does not consider the forward policy, then I believe China will not hit India is well-founded. This action is indeed the most reluctant to take in Beijing, and then as now, mm mm is difficult to see in China hope from the confrontation with India to get any possible strategic and political benefits. to the beginning of the 60s. People are beginning to feel seriously threatened. friendly strategic alliance with the Soviet Union has broken; in the United States occupies under the influence of China's seat at the United Nations to step up Taiwan's KMT remnants in armed attacks on the mainland; the Central Intelligence Agency under a program begun in 1956, 14, continues to train, arm and various rebel groups will be transported to Tibet. in support of that time has been in exile Dalai Lama in India, China, suspected cause of .15 in India, behind the ongoing armed provocations have the same effect (of course with the CIA Mullick chief in New Delhi to keep in close contact) 16 is not surprising . They might ask yourself, what else can explain India's policy? It will not bring material benefit in India, but it will certainly cause for concern continue to disperse at least China's defense forces. so. To remove this threat from India will be the inevitable military response under consideration is located in Beijing, and then start the deployment of preventive power.
to October 1962, the course policy in the western part of the situation became extremely tense. numerous small-scale Indian army outpost in the Chinese territorial claims on the ownership and control established, and all is always in the dominant forces of the PLA by close confrontation. occurred many times of armed conflict, the Chinese people were to the casualties. Beijing on China's military will be forced to retaliate for protests and warnings became angry and clear. at that time. the Indian government to solve the problem for Chinese leaders, eliminating any doubts about its intentions .10 a letter dated 6 note in Beijing appears to be the ; in order to achieve that is, to attack the idea of India. Nehru till then dispose of the differences makes such a declaration for him has become a necessity in politics: since as he put it, China is deliberately invaded the Indian territory. then he ordered the attack outside the government can do in addition? He's intimidation of the political class in India has caused joy chauvinism is making this statement as an ultimatum, or even a declaration of war 17mm, but the West is satisfied that it will have to implement this in a similar Barack Guevara field units under the command has caused fear among commanders.
Jawaharlal Nehru as the cause in the formation of a McMahon line mm or, more precisely against the point is that the Chinese side of the McMahon Line in the form of confrontation. McMahon outlet drawn the map is based on the preliminary investigation, when the administrative staff in India to reach the border area in the fifties when they come to the conclusion that certain sections of McMahon line should be placed a few miles north. Since the Chinese carefully drawn to comply with the McMahon Line, it would be seen as the de facto border, and call it , a time when they can do so, the Indians began the painting in the McMahon McMahon Line to which the lots north of the establishment of several outposts. that they have the right to make such unilateral . Now, after Beijing stop such as Deng Xiaoping said, India claims to have drawn in McMahon's the only piece of the line north of the territory of strategic significance in the most western end of Indian Ridge, where the highest positions at Tuggerah, you can observe its frontier outpost to China .1962 base and traffic in June for the implementation of the Indian troops from the occupation of Muslim gram order of the ridge in the foot of the mountain stream running through their Nan Muka River (Nam Chu) established a post in mm ridge is beyond the reach of its forces .9 logistical supply capacity has made the Chinese people on asking the western part of the response they are to a strong inhibition of military confrontation with India in the new post. the Indian government then announced that the Chinese people to send troops across the the McMahon Line. And Nehru Lu Zegong development vowing to go back to them.
Indian team, even if transferred to lightly armed infantry in that area have to struggle to overcome the difficulties troubling of all weapons mm and supplies have to rely on people moving across the many steep hills, its inability to adapt its height and thin clothing is deadly force; the People's Liberation Army heavy weapons and supplies were transported by truck to Tuggerah is relying on the ridge behind, and then use pack mules over the ridge. To rely on attack on the Chinese people away from the ridge is not possible in the military. Even if the Indians trying to focus on a brigade of infantry mm from the Indian side did the concentration of any size will be Chinese people easily overwhelming in number. One would have to follow the command of its forces launched an attack a hopeless division commander in the memories of his statement on the radio to hear the reaction when Jawaharlal Nehru, said:
the statement seems to be a blow to me. I can not believe anyone, much less a statesman of international reputation. will publish such an irresponsible statement hh military action and its military implications might be made the Chinese people reaction, at least for those of us in front of people is clear. Since Nehru publicly announced his intention to attack. So do not wait for the Chinese people to hit .18
10 月 9, Indian troops began prior to the attack on a strategic ridge preparatory action. foolhardy attack on the Indian has not yet caused serious casualties to the Chinese people before they came back quickly. A few days later another struggling business district down to the riverside to support the Indians there, so their number to about 2,500 people. Indian troops deployed to attack rather than defense. In this way, Beijing has no reason to doubt whether the words of Jawaharlal Nehru, said count position to know the Indian attack on China imminent .19 There is no doubt that such attacks can be defeated, so the attackers suffered heavy losses China suffered minimal casualties. but Beijing must have realized that such a partial victory for China's problems can only get worse . Indians of the failure will increase complained that they were Chinese people as victims and accused it of aggression mm in the West was once believed mm and enable them to become strong enough, we must resolve to fight again. Only a far more against large-scale punitive prevent India can expect to continue to claim their borders by force attempt.
10 月 20 Just before dawn on, the PLA launched a preventive attack. border war began 20. Tuggerah under ridge Indian troops had been defeated before the fighting in about 30 minutes. The ammunition will come to a Qing Jin, China move forward in the East until the occupation of Tawang. in the western part of cleared out. when the army stopped the advance of China, Zhou Enlai, Nehru sent a person to call. He suggested that the cease-fire, and People's Liberation Army to withdraw to positions behind the McMahon Line, as the answer. requires India to move forward and terminate the negotiations resistance of all the disputed area. panic in the. Jawaharlal Nehru's words in such a hysterical urge the U.S. military intervention, Ambassador of India to submit a letter that due to suffer humiliation and tears Yingkuang .21
advocated arrival in China People's Liberation Army The boundary of the advance stopped. Then China announced starting from November 22 unilateral ceasefire. and after one month withdrawal of its armed forces to 20 kilometers after the McMahon Line position.
This is Vajpayee Clinton said the force to achieve their claims. strong force feedback is added to Beijing's head, when it comes, it gets the appropriate measure. China's military counter-attack from a strategic and political reasons that are justified. India's policy does allow Beijing is no other realistic choice. As an Indian commentator put it, playing for sympathy for the cold-blooded political tricks hh fallacy. Vajpayee To President Clinton in his letter that: The Indian government still would like to seek from the figure in the past the benefits of fiction.
Second, the dispute remains unresolved why the Chinese in the border war
The victory is perfect, an absolute failure in India, but through other means as the diplomacy continued, the punitive expedition to China, made only a partial and temporary success. Indian's defeat led to the whole of the headquarters of the Su. Only flattering one or two soldiers to keep their future: 23 Indian back to the command of the professionals, who will lead it forward policy and lead to defeat of the political intervention came to an end. the border was quiet, not in 25 years are challenging in the west Indian spy, or across the McMahon Line. But the government no change in diplomatic practice. Nehru's position is still stiff, but now also does damage to an imaginary and a sense of betrayal, and strengthen a sense of real shame. China is not a decisive use of force to accomplish its two and lasting political objectives in any one: to make India to the negotiating table; to the Indians that the pre-negotiation attempt in this to India's territorial claims by force imposed on China in vain and in the self-destruction.
Zhou Enlai and Nehru dealing with personal experiences, made him feel very angry 24.1963 popular contempt and he was more serious in April, termination communication between the Prime Minister. He accused Nehru adopted political needs, not yet ready to negotiate, the Chinese government is willing to be patient, Since the time when the most explicit exposition of Deng Xiaoping in 1981 when he met a number of Indian commentators made in brevity:
China has never demanded the return of the old colonialists and illegal invasion of the entire territory of India. China proposed that both sides are In the actual control on the basis of the boundary line to make concessions in the eastern section of China, India, in the west, so that the border issue be addressed in the package .25 Nehru had taken the position of their government inaction. makes reversed, or even adjust, is very difficult. In addition to himself and other politicians of the rhetoric, the Parliament of the border during the war had passed a resolution asking the Government and its successors mm mm issued in the territory of .1954 with the official map is so confident that the Indian border as a compromise solution will involve a cession of Indian territory. The Constitution does not give the executive the power to cede territory. Therefore we can say that in a treaty can be implemented, you need to revise the Constitution, but to do so, you can at any envisaged political environment would be extremely difficult. Therefore, even if facing a term of political turmoil, the Government of India for talks with Beijing to resolve the border issue, this effort will continue to encounter roadblocks Nehru.
But successive governments have succeeded carefully and slowly across the steps. toward normalization of relations with Beijing. as a successor to his father, Nehru, Indira close to b Gandhi in 1976 restored to the ambassadorial level diplomatic representation. in 1979 People's Party government in power, the then Foreign Minister AB Vajpayee visited China, during this visit, the two countries re-launched the Government's position on the border of low-level officials to discuss the results immediately in the basic contradictory recommendations on the grounded mm Beijing to New Delhi that the contents of the negotiations is not negotiable. While these meetings are conducted in a bitter quarrel, and to the mid-eighties, relations have steadily improved. Then suddenly in 1987, the border dispute became acute once again to force arbitration, the second round of India's war against China.
as in the early sixties, as the Army Headquarters will be another change with placed in the highest command position. Earlier, General Kaul Nehru's cronies, a low-level public relations officials, because the Prime Minister's preference was promoted to the lofty and the Secretary of the much-needed staff positions, and then bear the People's Liberation Army as requirements from India, please get rid of the territories have the responsibility of the Corps commander. in the eighties, Kb Senda Bhattacharjee served as Army Chief of Staff, he was an ambitious soldier, but as with Kaul. In his curriculum vitae no fighting experience. He developed a plan Ludendorff Indian-style. in hopes of a first enable India to use its military superiority to Pakistan becoming a implemented until the border in Pakistan was one of the biggest military exercise to date, mm brass flat head screw action, as one analyst pointed out. Its purpose is to Kyrgyzstan did not get the opportunity to put into effect their plans, because the Pakistani government calm, not aggressive or so. So he shifted his attention to the Army's gravity to the McMahon Line in the lot for the Chinese.
The situation in the eastern section of the outbreak by another might be called the first armed border conflict is a place named to the north of the terrain that they think that the line painted McMahon too southerly areas (they never found him to paint a line to the north of the lot too). As evidenced since 1959 and in October 1962 answered the way, China does not allow such unilateral adjustment, always stand up to them. However, in 1985, when the spring snow melt, the Indians beat the season started again, the special service bureau (SSB, a boundary established in 1963 reconnaissance and intelligence agencies) sent a contingent. in the Sandlot River (The Sumdarong Chu) on the establishment of an observation post. the place to post on the ridge behind the Chinese in Tuggerah List of military deployment exhaustive; and this new post is not only marked on the map at the Chinese side of the McMahon Line, but also because it was the flashpoint border war which is of special significance and sensitive areas.
1962 年 unilateral People's Liberation Army withdrew proposed conditions require:
marked on the map McMahon Line, Bhutan borders and Tuggerah triangle between the territory of the ridge to be a demilitarized zone, and reserve the India into the area.
However, the Chinese people the establishment of the new post without an immediate response, until the winter came, the detachment of the Special Services Bureau before the withdrawal is not subject to challenge. During the inspection, the location of the withdrawal, the Chinese note Work has already begun to make this into a long of post: they destroyed those structures, and set up their own post, but also opened up a heliport. In July 1986 the return of the Special Services Bureau to re-share positions, they found that Chinese people have firmly guard there. Chinese people expected to disclose those remarks to the press soon, the official spokesman as usual, it said to be unprovoked invasion of Indian territory ; August 8 Indian government officially condemned the Chinese deliberately sent troops across the McMahon Line. Chinese place in the Sandlot River Indian pre-emptive and not let the issue was Senda Bhattacharjee holds its general use of the army must act as a challenge . then a new exercise, Saker Falcon action in a routine exercise, the map on the basis of the board action was quickly organized. which originally had planned at that time about the implementation. Saker Falcon action is to confront with China to the The boundaries shown tremendous offensive force, such as brass flat head screw of the same to Pakistan.
1987 the gradual contraction of India in early Army brass flat head screws, starting from west to east and from south to north to deploy massive forces. As a start, three infantry division, although because they are brass flat head screw in the tense and confused the role of fatigue, or across the McMahon Line in India was transferred to the lot. to April 1987, Indian army troops have been entrenched in a huge ridge in the Tuggerah The following positions, where several of its camps in the border war began had been defeated. Indian River in the Sandlot the threat of the establishment of two strong Chinese outposts pioneer post, the Chinese immediately from the 7 to lO meters deployed their confrontation. Indians far apart in the vanguard of seven posts, all across the McMahon Line were a little forward movement, which immediately aroused the Chinese people's reaction to form a close between the opposing armies Contact confrontation. So, Senda Bhattacharjee gave up fighting.
By this time, the Indian Army after decades of re-arming and military expansion, together with the 1962 to People's Liberation Army forced from their commanding ridge in the Tuggerah on the off position when the ill-equipped army thin clothing different, then despite the strong defensive positions, but because of general incompetence, not to fight will come to a crash. is not only to the Indian operations in such terrain is very prepared . well-equipped, and a number of critical highway near the border areas accessible. and a large number of transport aircraft and combat helicopters to provide supplies and support for ground attacks. In the exercise of the peak, India has deployed 12 additional divisions and several independent brigades against the northeast side of the Chinese people. Indian Air Force fighter-bomber, ground support and were transferred to Assam and North Bengal in the airport: It came from reliable sources that there are 5 squadrons.
Senda Bhattacharjee General calculation is that if the Chinese people as they did 1962 years is luring dry response, the use of light infantry to move quickly to carry out, violent combat against the Indian army positions around, they can be prepared from the advantages of defense base in attacking The Indian army to stop, and the elimination mm surrounded by Senta Bhattacharjee called a play the role of infantry support for Air Force. necessary, be extended to ensure air superiority, the H for the Chinese Air Force Base in Tibet. Senda Bhattacharjee battle plan seems to Vietnam to successfully resist the invasion of China as an example: Not long ago he had led a military delegation of India within the group to visit across the river.
However, the Chinese did not like them as dry years in 1962 to respond. They were greatly reinforced in Tibet. including the Field Army from the Chengdu and Lanzhou, along with fighter-bombers and appropriate on the plateau of action in the combat helicopters. the leadership in Beijing is no doubt that the official circles in New Delhi, the views expressed in mm fair to say that in their time of extreme abnormal mm that India should be pushed to the Tibetan fabric border river 29 Therefore, be careful .5 month, the Beijing official warned India that it adhere to the Chinese; but twice, the reports said. withdrew at the last minute attack that 30. Such action will undoubtedly re-ignite a full-scale border war, may have more serious things; but in the absence of any what the circumstances, Beijing is not by some harsh words stir up revenge.
the Government of India is seen as an excuse against the occupation of undisputed Indian territory Shengduan Another result of the claim covered the Beijing more real statements, as if the war had rushed to the border, as occurred. but considering the potentially explosive confrontation, surprisingly little in the international public attention to this 31. However. Satellite observation that Washington can be seen what happened to the Administration from the beginning about March 1987 the situation will be closely watching the development. It seems Americans in April between the Chinese Military Commission vice chairman, General Yang Shangkun visited the United States raised the matter to him, causing The response is: Although China called for a peaceful solution. If India insists on the border along the aggressive spying. it will have to respond. This gives officials in Washington last October thought of Deng Xiaoping, the then Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger visited Beijing carried out during the fierce criticism of India, According to the India r anxiety caused by the 32.
Americans do not like to see any kind of totally situation. quarreled in India and China in Washington, the highest hopes (and the most far-reaching plan?) are met long past the days of rejoicing . Now such conflicts do not meet U.S. political and strategic interests. It is safe to assume that Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi by b such a notice. from Moscow. Gorbachev is clear that before this, the Soviet Union would like to see between New Delhi and Beijing to restore good relations, do you take to begin to solve the same difficult and obviously difficult to deal with the needs of the Sino-Soviet border dispute the simple but hints about the nature of the mm mm steps.
1987 end of summer against an alarming rate eased. This probably reflects the great rebellious Indian Prime Minister or the Cabinet in response to U.S. warnings on the authority of an outdated done. New Delhi in its statement, the tune lowered; also extended an olive branch and then : Looking for Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited Beijing's invitation b.
opposing armies along the McMahon Line between the local commander to arrange the meeting. This led to the disengagement in some areas. However, in the Tuggerah ridge 4 posts eye to eye confrontation remains as before. In the East, the Indian Army troops will remain deployed in forward positions, Senda Bhattacharjee school in 1995, another general comment, said that its forces It was in 1962, since they are on the mountain the first time since humiliation is better than fighting on the Chinese people Beijing passive response to it, which restored the loss of Indian fighting in 1962,
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